Frequently Asked Questions :
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How did the word
butterfly originate ?
According to popular belief, the word butterfly
is derived from the expression "butter-coloured fly". This term may have been
applied to the Brimstone - one of Britain's
most well known insects and often the first butterfly to be seen
when the adults awake from hibernation in early Spring.
There may however be a better explanation -
In Old English the word was spelt "butterfloege". In Old Dutch and
German it was "botervleig" and "butterfliege" respectively. All of
these translate as "butter fly". Another German name "milchdieb" translates as "milk-thief" and probably refers to the habit
that these insects once had of being attracted to the aroma of buttermilk. In areas
of eastern Europe where ancient farming methods have not died out, butterflies
are still sometimes attracted to buttermilk being hand-churned in farmyards.
Brimstone butterfly - the original "butter-coloured fly" ?
Elsewhere in the world, butterflies are known by other names. In
Spain and Latin America they are called
mariposas. In Portugal
they are
borbolettas. To
the French they are
papillons. In Russia they are
babochka and in Armenia teeternig.
My favourites however are the Romanian
flutturi
( because butterflies are fluttery! ), and the Nigerian
olookolombooka
( oh look - a lombooka! ).
Click here to see the historic
names of all British butterflies.
How can you tell
a butterfly from a moth ?
All butterflies and moths belong to
the order Lepidoptera. This is split into
34 superfamilies, each with particular characteristics. 95% of the species
in these superfamilies are nocturnal insects, and
are commonly called moths.
Positioned (
in evolutionary and systematic terms ) somewhere in the middle of all these
moths are two particular superfamilies - the Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea.
The Hesperioidea comprises of a single family Hesperiidae. Its
members are called Skippers, and are generally thought of as being
butterflies. The Papilionoidea comprises of 6 families. Five of these - the
Papilionidae,
Lycaenidae,
Riodinidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae have always been regarded
as butterflies. In 2011 scientists decided as a result of molecular analysis
that members of the moth family
Hedylidae had more in common with the
traditional butterfly families than with other moths. Consequently the Hedylidae
were transferred to the Papilionoidea, and are now regarded as butterflies!
In terms of systematics the Papilionoidea are positioned between the moth
superfamilies Geometroidea and Drepanoidea.
"Moths" are usually thought of as being drab in colour and
nocturnal in habit,
but there are plenty of very colourful day-flying moths, e.g.
Urania moths ( Uraniidae ),
Burnets ( Zygaenidae ) and Tiger moths ( Arctiidae ). Conversely while
it's true that the great majority of butterflies are colourful sun loving creatures,
many tropical species such as Opsiphanes Owlet butterflies and
Melanitis Evening Browns are dull
in colour and only fly between dusk and dawn.
It is often incorrectly stated that all butterflies have clubbed
antennae, thereby distinguishing them from moths. Members of the butterfly
families
Papilionidae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae,
Nymphalidae and
Pieridae
do in fact have antennae with a pronounced club or swelling at
the tip, as do members of the moth families Zygaenidae and
Castniidae. The remaining butterfly family Hedylidae however
have tapered antennae and are extremely "moth-like" in
appearance. In all moth families apart from
Zygaenidae and Castniidae
the antennae are tapered to a fine point, or have feathery
plumes.
The antennae of most
butterflies e.g. Vanessa
atalanta
have a swollen or clubbed tip.
members of the butterfly family Hedylidae however have tapered
antennae.
The antennae of skippers (
Hesperioidea ), such as the Dingy Skipper
Erynnis tages have hooked tips as do those of Burnet
moths from the family Zygaenidae.
A pair of day-flying moths from Peru :
Urania leilus, which could easily be mistaken for a
swallowtail butterfly; and the pretty yellow and black
Xanthiris flaveolata. Both have
tapered antennae, as do most other moths.
Most moths have narrow tapered
antennae, but the males of Saturniidae have
feathery plumes that are used to detect and home in on female
pheromones
( image © Emily Halsey )
The fore
and hind-wings of all moths are physically linked in flight by a
wing-coupling bristle known as a frenulum. This is absent from
the wings of butterflies, with the exception of a single
Australian species the Regent
Skipper
Euschemon rafflesia, which has a
frenulum in males but not in females.
Members of the "moth" family
Hedylidae are considered to be living ancestors of modern
butterflies, as they have a remarkable number of
common characteristics. See
Macrosoma "Butterfly moth".
For more details about classification
please visit the
Taxonomy pages.
How do scientists
describe and name new species ?
When someone thinks they have discovered a
"new" species, they have to send a sample specimen to a
taxonomist for analysis. By examining the structure of the
wings, legs and antennae the family and
subfamily can quickly be determined. Next, examination of the layout
of the wing veins makes it possible to ascertain whether the
insect belongs to an existing genus. If the venation is unique,
a new genus has to be invented as a "container" for the species.
Sometimes a new species is so closely related
to a known species, that the only way to distinguish them is by
dissecting and comparing their genitalia. Other methods are also
employed, including microscopic examination of wing scales, and
DNA analysis.
If the butterfly does turn out to
be a new
species, the taxonomist then creates a Latinised name for it,
and publishes the description and name in a recognised
scientific journal.
The origin of scientific names varies
enormously. Some species are named after Greek gods, some get
their name from the place where the butterfly was discovered, or
are named in honour of some eminent entomologist.
It is
considered unethical for people to name a species after
themselves, but there is at least one instance where someone got
away with it - a scarab beetle named
Cartwrightia cartwrighti
CARTWRIGHT.
Names are often descriptive of the
caterpillar's foodplant : the Orange tip
Anthocharis cardamines gets its
name from the plant
garlic mustard Cardamines pratensis.
Equally often names refer to the colour or pattern of the
butterfly - the Clouded Yellow's species name
crocea means "deep yellow",
while the Eyed Hawkmoth's name S.
ocellatus means "eye" and
refers to the eye-like markings on the moth's hindwings.
The
Charismatic Metalmark
Taxonomists are not usually renowned for having a great sense of
humour, but amongst their more hilarious moments they have managed
to provide us with a few amusing scientific names. Hence we have a
metalmark from Colombia, named by Hall and Harvey in 2002
as
Charis matic ! It has since been
renamed rather less attractively as
Detritivora matic. The new genus
name refers to the fact that the caterpillars feed on decaying
leaves and other detritus on the forest floor.
The World's
dullest Skipper ?
Sometimes it can be difficult
to think up names for some of the more mundane looking species,
particularly for the hundreds of near-identical dull brown skipper
species found in the neotropics. In 1997 the taxonomist Austin was
apparently so unimpressed with his latest discovery that he gave a
"new" Mexican species the unfortunate name
Inglorius mediocris, which needs little translation !
Below is it's
official scientific description :
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Type species:
Inglorius mediocris
Austin, new species
Description. Palpi slender, third segment straight,
protruding well beyond second segment, about equal to
length of dorsal edge of second segment; antennae long,
extending beyond end of forewing discal cell, nearly 60%
length of forewing costa, black with pale ochreous beneath
distad and below club; club just over 1/4 (28%) antennal
length, bent to apiculus at thickest part, apiculus length
about 2x club width, nudum grey,
of 12 segments (3 on club, 9 on apiculus); forewing discal
cell slightly produced, 75% length of anal margin, origin
of vein CuA2 nearer to CuA, than to wing base, hindwing
discal cell just over 1/2 wing width; mid tibiae with four
fine spines on inner surface and single pair of spurs,
hind tibiae with two pairs of spurs; forewing produced
with slight concavity between CuA! and 2A; hindwing convex
anteriorly, somewhat concave between CuAj and 2A; no
apparent secondary sexual characters. Male genitalia with
short tegumen; uncus longer than tegumen, undivided, and
hood-like over gnathos; gnathos
as long as uncus, divided, extending laterad of uncus in
dorsal view and as rectangular flaps mesad in ventral
view; vinculum sinuate; saccus short; valva very long,
ampulla/costa long and sloping somewhat downward caudad,
harpe long, roughly triangular ending in an inward turned
point caudad, dorsal margin undulate, weakly serrate
cephalad; aedeagus tubular (anterior portion missing),
caudal end expanded terminally in lateral view, no
apparent cornutus. |
M ore about nomenclature / classification
- see
Taxonomy
pages.
Click here for a further
selection of fascinating scientific names.
How long do
butterflies & moths live ?
It varies considerably according to species. The average
lifespan of an adult butterfly is about 2 weeks, but some
species ( e.g.
Heliconius erato and
Taygetis mermeria from South
America, and
Gonepteryx rhamni from Europe ) can
live for at least 11 months.
The whole lifecycle from egg to adult takes
about 3 weeks to complete in many tropical species. In
temperate regions however there are usually only 1 or 2
generations a year, while in the sub-arctic tundra several
species take 2 full years to complete their lifecycles.
The longest-lived species of all is a moth by the name of
Gynaephora groenlandica, which
lives on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian arctic. The adult
moth, a member of the family Lymantriidae,
lives for only a few days, but it has been estimated ( Kukal &
Kevan, 1987 ) that its caterpillar, known as the
Arctic Woolly Bear, takes an amazing 14 years to reach full
growth - although later research by Morewood & Ring suggests
that the lifecycle can sometimes be completed in only 7 years.
Either way
Gynaephora groenlandica
and it's close
relatives rossi,
ginghaiensis,
relictus,
selenitica
&
menhuanensis are almost certainly
the longest-lived species of Lepidoptera on Earth. Temperatures in
their Arctic habitats can drop as low as minus 60° C, forcing
the caterpillars to spend 10 or 11 months in hibernation, frozen
solid. Only for a few short weeks in June and July is it warm
enough for them to defrost, allowing them to feed and grow.
In their final year they pupate in a thin silk cocoon. The
adult moths emerge a few days later, find mates, lay their eggs and
die.
Arctic Woolly Bear moth,
Gynaephora groenlandica
(
image supplied )
How many butterfly
species are there in the world ?
A study in 1968 concluded that the 920,000 species of insect then
known to exist accounted for 85% of all known animal species on
Earth. The insects already known at that time included no less
than 300,000 species of Coleoptera ( beetles ), 90,000 Diptera (
flies ), 108,000 Hymenoptera ( bees, wasps and ants ), and 113,000
Lepidoptera ( butterflies & moths ).
Since then the number of known butterflies and moths has increased
dramatically. This is partly because vast areas of formerly
inaccessible rainforest have now been surveyed, and new species
discovered. Another reason is that advances in taxonomy,
phylogenetics and cladistics have led to many taxa that were
formerly considered to be subspecies, being "elevated" to full
species status.
In "Butterflies of Mexico & USA" ( Scott, 1992 ) a census estimated that there were approx 14750
butterfly species ( including skippers ) worldwide.
In 2007 Hoskins collated data from a
number of sources and produced a
World Butterfly Census which
enumerates 17657 currently known species.
The true total will never be known,
as many species will become extinct before they are discovered, but
is likely to be in the region of 18,000 - 21,000 species.
Why are butterflies so diverse in the tropics ?
There
are several contributing factors :
Firstly,
there are a great many more biological and climatic niches to be
occupied in the tropics - in Peru for example, where there are more
butterfly species than anywhere else in the world, there are
deserts, high altitude grasslands, rainforests and cloudforests.
These habitats contains many sub-habitats, each capable of
supporting a sizeable fauna, e.g. a rainforest will have an entirely
different range of species in the canopy, sub-canopy, and
understorey.
Secondly, during ice ages, it is only the tropical and
sub-tropical regions which are able to support butterflies, so
these become refugiae into which species from elsewhere contract.
The butterflies that normally live in temperate regions either
become extinct or migrate and survive on remote mountains in the
tropics where conditions are suitable for them. When the Earth
warms up again, and temperate regions once again become habitable
by butterflies, they are recolonised slowly, either by species
that return from the tropical mountains, or by tropical lowland
species which are able to adapt to the new conditions. Temperate
butterflies are therefore comprised of a small proportion of
species that re-emerge from the tropics.
Thirdly, the climate, and the
evergreen nature of the foliage in the tropical lowlands, enables
many more generations to breed each year - perhaps as many as 8
generations for some species, compared with just one or two in
temperate regions. This, according to the Theory of Evolution
provides many more opportunities for new forms to arise.
How do you tell
a male from a female butterfly ?
In many species there are obvious visual differences. The
Polyommatinae ( Blues ) for example usually have blue males and
brown females.
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Common Blue - only the males are blue - the females are
brown |
Only the male
Orange tip has the orange wing tips |
The males of Hairstreaks, Satyrines, large Fritillaries and
Skippers often have androconia
( scent emitting scales ) in the form of dark patches or streaks
on the upperside forewings.
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male Large
Skipper showing diagonal band of androconia on forewings |
male
Silver-washed Fritillary has 4 bands of androconia on
forewings |
The differences in other species may be more subtle - males
generally have more angular wings, longer thinner bodies,
brighter colours, and stronger patterns than females of the same
species. There are usually obvious differences in behaviour as
well - males tend to actively patrol their habitats, or to
establish a small territory which they defend against other
butterflies. Females by comparison are far more sedentary, and
in the early part of their flight period tend to stay in areas
where both adult and larval food sources are present.
What is the most
widespread butterfly in the world ?
There are several very widespread species including the Monarch
Danaus plexippus, the Plain Tiger
Danaus chrysippus, the Long-tailed
Blue
Lampides boeticus, and the Small
White
Pieris rapae, all of which are
found on at least 3 continents.
The Painted Lady
Vanessa cardui however
is the most widely distributed butterfly in the world, found in
North America from Alaska to Mexico, and south to the Caribbean
islands and Venezuela. In the Old World it occurs throughout
Europe and temperate Asia, over most of Africa, Madagascar, the
Azores, the Canary Islands, the Arab states, and across to the
Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. In the Far East it occurs in
Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra - and extends it's range
south through the Indonesian islands to Western Australia. The
New Zealand Painted Lady
Vanessa kershawi is also regarded
by some taxonomists to be a sub-species of
cardui.
Painted Lady Vanessa cardui
The cosmopolitan distribution of the Painted Lady is caused by a
combination of it's very strong migratory behaviour and
polyphagous nature - in Britain its caterpillars feed almost
exclusively on thistles, but elsewhere they utilise a vast range
of foodplants amongst the Compositae,
Malvaceae,
Boraginaceae, Hydrophyllaceea, Ulmaceae, Rutaceae,
Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae,
Labiatae,
Plantaginaceae, Leguminosae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae,
Cucurbitaceae, Cruciferae, Umbelliferae, Rosaceae,
Rhamnaceae, and even one or two grasses !
Which is the
largest butterfly in the world ?
The female of the
Alexandra Birdwing
Ornithoptera alexandrae,
found in Papua New Guinea has a wingspan of about 20cms ( 8" ).
The largest butterflies in South America are the
Owl butterfly Caligo idomeneus
( 14cms ), and
Morpho helena, the iridescent blue male reaching 13cms,
and the orange and brown female 15cms. In Africa the largest
species is Druryeia antimachus at
17cms.
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Alexandra's
Birdwing
Ornithoptera alexandrae,
Papua New Guinea
( photo
supplied ) |
....and the smallest ?
At the opposite extreme are the tiny
Lycaenids Itylus titicaca from
Bolivia and
Chilades miniscula from Madagascar.
The tiniest of them all however is a dull brown Lycaenid
Micropsyche ariana, found only in Afghanistan, which
measures just 8mm across the wings.
....and the largest moth ?
The largest moth in the world,
in terms of wingspan ( measured across forewing at widest point
) is
the White Witch
Thysania agrippina from South America, which measures as
much as 32cms across the wings. It is generally accepted however
that the title of largest moth should go to the Giant Atlas moth
Attacus atlas. The latter has a slightly smaller wingspan
at 30cms, but a greater surface area.
The Giant Atlas moth is a common species across much of tropical
Asia.
Giant Atlas moth
Attacus atlas,
West Malaysia
( image
©
Gan
Cheong Weei )
Why are tropical butterflies
and moths so big ?
Insects are cold blooded, so in
cooler climates caterpillars grow slowly and are only able to
produce one or two generations of small or medium sized
butterflies or moths per year.
In hot climates they can feed
almost continually and grow much more rapidly, so tropical
species have been able to evolve to produce much larger caterpillars,
resulting in larger adults.
There are limits to the maximum
size a species can attain however. The limitations of the insect
respiratory system make larger bodies less efficient.
Consequently large butterflies and moths tend to react and fly
more slowly than their smaller counterparts, and are easy prey
for birds.
Note also that not all tropical
Lepidoptera are large - there are many very small species. These
are the result of an alternative strategy whereby many species
produce several generations of small insects per year, rather
than a single generation of large ones.
Which country has the most
butterfly species ?
Peru has over 3,700 butterfly
species - more than any other country and equal to about 20% of
the world total. The butterflies of Peru however are still
vastly under-recorded, and it is estimated that as many as 4,200
will eventually be discovered.
The highest known concentration
of species is at Pakitza, an area of about 4000 hectares within
Manu national park. Over 1,300 species have so far been recorded
at Pakitza.
The great diversity and
abundance of butterflies in Peru is partly due to the
extraordinary range of climatic conditions and vast diversity of
habitats. Together these create a vast array of ecological
niches in which species can exist and evolve.
Not far behind Peru are Brazil,
Colombia and Ecuador, each of which have about 3,200 species. In
all of Central and South America there are about 7,500 species,
compared to about 3,600 for the whole of Africa.
more questions.... >>
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