anatomy
|
The study of the internal and external structure of animals.
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androconia
|
Specialised wing scales in male butterflies, from which
pheromones are disseminated to attract or convey chemical
messages to females.
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antennae
|
The pair of segmented sensory organs arising from the heads of
insects, used to detect pheromones. Also known as "feelers".
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apex
|
The tip of the forewing, where the costa and outer margin
meet.
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aposematic
|
Warning coloration e.g. bright yellow,
orange or red, often in association
with a
black ground colour. Examples include the yellow and black
bands on the abdomen of wasps & hornets, and the fiery orange
colour of toxic butterflies such as the Monarch
Danaus plexippus.
|
aphytophagous |
Carnivorous
on homopterans - as with some Lycaenidae caterpillars that feed
on aphids, coccids, psyllids or membracids. |
basal
|
The area of the wings that is closest to the thorax.
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bivoltine
|
Having 2 generations per year.
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brood
|
A single generation of a population. Hence double-brooded
refers to a species having 2 generations per year.
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calcareous
|
Alkaline soils and rocks, e.g. chalk, limestone.
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camouflage
|
A form of concealment in which the
subject is similar in colour and pattern to the surface on
which it rests, e.g. the Green Hairstreak
Callophrys rubi
which is similar in colour and texture to living foliage.
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cell
|
The areas of the wings that are enclosed between veins.
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chitin
|
The tough matter which forms the outer casing of the head,
thorax, abdomen, legs, antennae etc of an insect.
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chrysalis
|
The third stage of the lifecycle of a butterfly, in which the
metamorphosis from caterpillar to adult butterfly takes place.
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cladistics |
A diagrammatic system of taxonomy based on quantitative analysis
of comparative morphological and behavioural data, hostplant
usage, DNA analysis etc. This is used to construct tree diagrams
( cladograms ) that deduce and illustrate relationships between
taxa. |
cline
|
A progressive change in visible characteristics apparent over
the range of a species. The 2 extremes of appearance are
linked by a series of intermediates.
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colony
|
A locally isolated population of any given subspecies, the
result of fragmented distribution in species with critical
habitat requirements.
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coppicing
|
A method of woodland management whereby trees are cut every
5-15 years just above the base of the trunk. This stimulates
the growth of a number of narrow trunks called poles. These
are used to manufacture fence posts, or burnt to produce
charcoal. Coppicing exposes the ground to sunlight, thereby
stimulating the germination of herbaceous plants that are
favoured by butterflies as larval foodplants or nectar
sources.
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costa
|
The leading edge of the forewing or hindwing.
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costal fold
|
A fold in the leading edge of the
forewing, which contains androconia. Found in the males of
certain Pyrgines e.g.
Erynnis tages.
|
cremaster
|
Tiny hooks at the tip of the abdomen of a pupa, used to secure
the pupa to a silk pad spun by the caterpillar.
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crepuscular
|
The habit of becoming active in the half light of dusk or
dawn, and being quiescent during bright daylight and total
darkness.
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cryptic
|
Coloration and patterning which conceals an insect from
predators. Examples include camouflage, disguise and
disruptive patterning.
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desertification
|
The gradual conversion of forested land into arid grassland
and finally into desert, as a result of climate change and /
or destructive use of land.
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desiccation
|
Excessive loss of water from plant or animal tissues.
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diematic |
Patterning or
posture that simulates the appearance of a predatory or harmful
creature, e.g. the "snake-head" marking on the forewing of an
Attacus
Atlas moth or the "owl-eyes" on the wings of
Automeris
moths. |
diapause
|
Suspension of activity and development, usually as the result
of climatic influence. Examples include hibernation and
aestivation.
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dimorphism
|
The occurrence of 2 distinct forms of a species in a given
population. Examples include sexual dimorphism ( male and
female being markedly different ) and seasonal dimorphism (
dry season and wet season forms being markedly different ).
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discal
|
The central area of the forewing or hindwing.
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disguise
|
A form of concealment in which the subject strongly resembles
a naturally occurring object. Examples include the
Comma
Polygonia c-album which when it's
wings are closed, resembles a dead leaf, and the
Buff-tip moth
Phalera bucephala
which resembles a broken twig.
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dispersal
|
Extension of the range of a butterfly beyond it's local
breeding area, caused when females stray away from existing
colonies.
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disruptive coloration
|
The breaking up of wing outlines by mottling, marbling or
bands of contrasting colours. Birds tend to target butterflies
by shape, so any pattern that breaks up the shape into
irregular sections will assist the butterfly in evading
attention.
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diurnal
|
The habit of becoming active during daylight hours.
|
DNA
|
Deoxyribonucleic acid - the molecules from which chromosomes
and genes are constructed.
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dorsal
|
The back of the body, or the upper ( recto ) surface of the
wings.
|
ecology
|
The study of relationships and dependencies of animals and
plants with each other and the environment.
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endemic
|
The restriction of a taxa to within a limited and well defined
area such as an island, mountain range or country beyond which
it is absent.
|
evolution
|
The theoretical ability, as postulated by Darwin and others,
of a species developing by degrees into a genetically and
physically different organism, by a process known as natural
selection.
|
falcate
|
Hooked, as in the apex of a Brimstone butterfly's forewing.
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family
|
An assemblage of closely related genera.
|
fauna
|
The entire range of animal species within a geographical
region.
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flora
|
The entire range of plant species within a geographical
region.
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form
|
An ecological, seasonal or sexually
dimorphic variety of a species or subspecies, e.g. the form
valesina
is an ecological variety of the female of the Silver-washed
Fritillary - Argynnis paphia
f. valesina.
|
genitalia
|
The sexual organs. The male equivalent of a penis is called an
aedeagus, the female organ is called a bursa copulatrix.
|
genus ( pl. genera )
|
An assemblage of species that are more closely related to each
other than to species in any other genus. In the case of
butterflies and moths, all the species within a given genus
will share identical wing venation and various other
characteristics.
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girdle
|
A silk thread around the "waist" of a chrysalis, supporting
it's weight.
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gynandromorph
|
A sterile individual which possesses both male and female
characteristics. Only obvious in sexually dimorphic species.
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habitat
|
A type of environment or life-zone with particular
characteristics that have a limiting effect on the
biodiversity of the fauna. Examples include calcareous
grassland, sub-alpine meadows, and
tropical dry forest.
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hair pencil
|
A tuft of androconial scales found at the tip of the abdomen
of male Danaines and certain moth families.
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hibernaculum
|
A "nest" made by larvae, within which they overwinter.
Comprised of a tent of leaves held together with strands of
silk, or of a more substantial communal web
within which a brood of larvae shelter in the early
instars.
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hibernation
|
The dormant stage of the lifecycle in which a species passes
the winter months. Depending on the species, hibernation can
occur in the egg, caterpillar, chrysalis or adult stage of the
lifecycle.
|
honey dew
|
A sugary by-product expelled by the oak
aphid Phylloxera quercus,
as it sucks protein-rich fluids from oak leaves. Vast
quantities of this substance coat the upper surface of oak
leaves in mid-summer, and are used as an adult food source by
many butterfly species, and also by ants.
|
honey gland
|
A gland on the backs of Lycaenid larvae which secretes a
sugary substance that is attractive to certain ant species
that form symbiotic relationships with the relevant butterfly
species.
|
hyaline
|
Translucent or transparent
"windows" that form part of the
pattern of a butterfly's wings. Occurs mainly in tropical
Ithomiines ( Glasswings ) and Satyrines (
Cithaerias, Dulcedo, Haetera
etc ).
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hybrid
|
The progeny that results from the cross-fertilisation of 2
species. Hybrids of either sex are always sterile.
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imago
|
The final adult stage of an insect.
|
instar
|
The stage of a caterpillars development between moults.
Depending on the species, a caterpillar can have 4, 5, or 6
instars.
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instinct
|
Inherited behaviours and responses, as opposed to those that
are learnt by individuals during their own lifetimes.
Courtship rituals can appear to be intelligent but are merely
a series of instinctive responses to specific stimuli. A
female for example might settle if showered with pheromones by
a male, and the male then has to respond in a particular way
which signals the female to initiate the next phase of the
ritual, and so on.
|
intelligence
|
The ability of a species to reason and learn, to understand,
and profit from experience. Avian predators exhibit
intelligence, but there is no evidence that true intelligence
occurs in any insect species.
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larva
|
The second stage in the lifecycle of a butterfly or moth. Also
known as a caterpillar. Examples include silkworms, loopers
and woolly bears.
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lunule
|
A crescent shaped mark, typically found in a series around the
wing margins of Polyommatinae ( Blues ), Melitaeini (
Fritillaries ) etc.
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margin
|
The outer border of the wings.
|
mark & recapture
|
A technique used in the study of population dynamics.
Butterflies are captured, painted with a unique identification
mark, and released. By comparing the percentage of marked /
unmarked butterflies captured on successive days, the size of
butterfly populations can be estimated. The technique is also
used to "tag" butterflies when studying migration.
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melanism
|
Increased development of black pigments on the wings,
prevalent when pupae are subjected to abnormally cold climatic
conditions. The higher percentage of blackness on the wings
increases heat absorption and enables the butterflies to
remain active in colder conditions.
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metamorphosis
|
The transformation of a caterpillar into a chrysalis, and the
development of the adult butterfly within the chrysalis.
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metapopulation
|
A population comprised of a semi-permanent core colony,
surrounded by a number of smaller marginal colonies that wax
and wane in size, often periodically collapsing, to be later
re-colonised from the core colony.
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microhabitat
|
A small and well defined sub-habitat e.g. the forest floor
within a mid-elevation transitional wet rainforest, or a damp
gully at a particular elevation on a grassy mountainside.
|
migration
|
The spontaneous dispersal of a species over long distances in
order to seek suitable breeding sites, e.g. the Clouded Yellow
migrates from North Africa, across Europe and northwards into
Britain. Migration is probably triggered by climatic
conditions, length of day, habitat overcrowding, habitat
degradation and other unknown factors.
|
mimicry
|
The close visual and behavioural resemblance of one species to
another, presumed to be an evolutionary development.
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mimicry, Batesian
|
Similarity of appearance between an unpalatable or noxious
species ( the model ) and an unrelated palatable species ( the
mimic ).
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mimicry, M�llerian
|
Similarity of appearance among a group of related or unrelated
species that are all unpalatable or toxic to predators. Avian
predators associate the patterning of the whole group with the
unpleasant experience of tasting just one or two butterflies.
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monocotyledon
|
Any flowering plant whose first sprout from the seed has only
one leaf, e.g. grasses, sedges, rushes, orchids, palms,
bamboo. These are used as larval foodplants of Hesperiinae,
Morphinae and Satyrinae.
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morphology
|
The study of development and change of structure and form.
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mud-puddling
|
The act of imbibing dissolved mineral salts from damp ground.
Almost exclusively confined to male butterflies, which need to
replace salts lost during copulation. In some species it may
even be necessary for males to acquire these salts prior to
copulation.
|
myrmecophile |
A species
that lives in a dependent, mutually beneficial, or symbiotic
relationship with one or more species of ant. |
natural selection
|
"Survival of the fittest". An evolutionary process whereby
individuals that exhibit beneficial anatomical or behavioural
adaptations pass on their characteristics genetically to
subsequent generations. At the same time, less desirable
characteristics are gradually eliminated from populations as a
result of heavier predation and other environmental factors.
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nectaring
|
The act of feeding on the nectar of flowering herbs, bushes or
trees.
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neotropics
|
Mexico and all of the countries of Central America and South
America.
|
nocturnal
|
The habit of becoming active during night time.
|
nomenclature |
The assignment of scientific names to families, genera and
species. |
ocellus
|
A rounded spot or marking on the wings, effectively a
"false-eye" that may temporarily startle a predator, or divert
attack away from the body of the butterfly.
|
osmaterium
|
A fleshy forked eversible organ located behind the head of
caterpillars in the family Papilionidae. It secretes a noxious
fluid which deters attacks by parasitic and predatory wasps,
ants, and birds.
|
oviposit
|
To lay eggs, either singly or in batches.
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ovum ( plural ova )
|
Egg. The first stage in the lifecycle of a butterfly.
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Palaearctic
|
The zoogeographical region that comprises of Europe, North
Africa, and the temperate and sub-arctic areas of Asia.
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palpi
|
The pair of sensory organs that project from between the
antennae of adult butterflies. Used to detect pheromones.
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parasite
|
An organism which feeds and develops on or within another
species, but does not bring about it's death. An example is
Trombidium breei,
a mite which parasitises Common Blue butterflies.
|
parasitoid
|
An organism which feeds and develops
within another species, ultimately leading to it's death, e.g.
the wasp Apanteles glomeratus
whose grubs kill vast numbers of larvae of the Large White
Pieris brassicae.
|
patrolling
|
Flying back and forth over a fixed area. Used to describe the
flight of males when actively searching for females.
|
perching
|
Mate location whereby a male waits on a protruding leaf or
twig, darting out to intercept and investigate passing insects
to seek females. The male nearly always returns to the perch
afterwards, and defends the territory by ejecting other males.
|
pheromone
|
An airborne chemical substance disseminated by male
butterflies that induces receptiveness or passiveness in
females of the same species. Related substances are used by
female moths e.g. Saturniidae and Lasiocampidae, to attract
male moths from a considerable distance.
|
phylogenetics |
The study of
natural evolutionary relationships between groups of living
things, inferred using DNA analysis. The results are usually
output as cladistic diagrams ( phylogenetic trees ) |
pigment
|
A chemical which in the case of butterflies is derived from
the caterpillar's food plants, and which produces the base
colour of individual wing scales.
|
plantation
|
Secondary forest which has been planted with plots of a single
species of tree, typically oak, beech or spruce. The trees are
allowed to reach maturity and then felled en masse. Butterfly
diversity in such habitats is poor as most species are unable
to survive in the cool shady forest. The creation of wide
tracks, large semi-permanent glades, enlarged intersections,
and scalloping of ride edges are management techniques used to
encourage butterflies to breed in such forests.
|
polymorphism
|
The occurrence of 2 or more forms of a
given species within the same population, as in the Mocker
Swallowtail Papilio dardanus.
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polyphagous
|
Describing a species whose larvae feed on a wide range of
different plant species from different genera or families.
Such highly adaptable species tend to be much more widespread
and abundant than those which specialise on particular larval
foodplants.
|
polyvoltine
|
Having several generations per year. Also univoltine,
bivoltine, trivoltine, meaning having one, two or three
generations per year.
|
population
|
Members of a species that live together in the same area, and
whose subsequent generations maintain uniform genetic
character.
|
proboscis
|
The tube through which adult butterflies suck liquid foods,
and which is coiled between the labial palpi when not in use.
|
pupa ( pl. pupae )
|
The 3rd stage in the lifecycle of a butterfly in which the
bodily tissues are broken down and reform as an adult
butterfly. Also known as a chrysalis.
|
race
|
A distinctive population which is
visually separable from other races of the same species, but
which is not sufficiently different to be regarded as a
sub-species. Examples include the "Castle Eden Argus" and the
"Scotch White-spot", collectively known as the Northern Brown
Argus. Both are races of the sub-species
Aricia artaxerxes artaxerxes.
|
range
|
The entire area within which a species naturally occurs. The
distribution of a species within it's range is often patchy,
but in the more adaptable species can be contiguous.
|
recessive
|
Suppressed by a corresponding dominant gene, so that the
recessive form, which is normally different in appearance,
occurs less frequently in the population than the dominant
form.
|
reflectance basking
|
Basking with the wings held half open, so as to reflect
sunlight falling on the wings of whites, blues and coppers
onto the thorax and abdomen, to facilitate rapid warming.
|
reticulation
|
A network pattern.
|
scales
|
Microscopic plates which arise from individual cells on the
wings, body and legs of butterflies and moths. The wing scales
overlap like the tiles on a roof, and are easily dislodged,
appearing as coloured dust on the fingers when butterfly wings
are handled. The scales on the body and legs are long and
thin, giving the appearance of fur or hair.
|
species
|
A group of individuals that interbreed, producing and
maintaining genetically identical fertile healthy offspring
over a period of millions of generations. By definition a
species cannot interbreed with another taxon to produce
fertile offspring.
|
sphragis
|
A plug or structure which seals the
genital opening of fertilised females of certain species, e.g.
Parnassius apollo,
or Euphydryas aurinia,
physically preventing further copulation.
|
spiracles
|
A series of breathing holes arranged in a row on each side of
the abdominal part of larvae, pupae and adult butterflies.
|
submarginal
|
The area slightly inboard of the margins on the wings, often
marked with lunules, ocelli or chevrons.
|
sub-species
|
A population that is permanently isolated geographically from
other populations of the same species, and which has constant
and obvious differences in appearance and ecology compared
with other populations of the same species. Sub-species never
naturally interbreed, but have the potential to produce
fertile offspring if interbred in captivity. The term
"subspecies" is regarded as unscientific by some taxonomists
who consider "species" to be the terminal taxonomic rank, and
"sub-species" to be merely a convenient way of naming
geographical races.
|
symbiosis
|
The co-existence and inter-dependence of
2 organisms, such that one or both of the organisms is
incapable of surviving without the cooperation of the other.
The Large Blue Maculinea arion
for example is incapable of surviving unless it feeds during
it's larval stage on the grubs of the ant
Myrmica sabuleti.
The ant benefits from having the larva in it's nest, but can
survive without it.
|
sympatric
|
Occurring in the same area.
|
synonym
|
Duplicated scientific names applied to
the same taxon. The first published species name is valid.
Others are called junior or invalid synonyms. When taxonomists
revise the classification of a species it is often transferred
to a newly created genus, e.g. the Meadow Brown was originally
given the name Papilio jurtina,
but is now called Maniola jurtina.
|
taxon ( pl. taxa )
|
Any scientifically defined biological
unit, e.g. the class Insecta, the family Nymphalidae, the
genus Apatura,
or the species iris.
|
taxonomy
|
The scientific classification of organising animals and plants
into groups as defined by presumed relationships. Patterns of
wing venation for example are commonly used to assign species
into appropriate genera.
|
territory
|
A fixed area defended by the male of a species, often centred
on a perching place such as a particular leaf, which is used
as a lookout post from which to survey passing females.
|
thorax
|
The muscular middle section of an insect's body, which acts as
an anchor for the legs, wings, head and abdomen.
|
transect
|
A regular weekly walk that follows a fixed route through a
butterfly habitat. The route is divided into sections, each
representing a different sub-habitat. The butterflies seen in
each section are counted, and the figures compared to those
obtained in other sections, or from the same section in
previous years. The figures are analysed to determine the
management factors that affect butterfly populations.
|
tubercles
|
Wart-like nodules which are formed in bands on the abdominal
segments of certain species of caterpillar. In some
subfamilies e.g. Nymphalinae, the tubercles are greatly
enlarged and extended to form rows of branched spines along
the back and sides.
|
univoltine
|
Having a single generation per year.
|
variety
|
An unscientific term approximately synonymous with "form".
|
vein
|
A tubular blood vessel, particularly in reference to the tubes
supporting the membrane of butterfly wings.
|
venation
|
The pattern and arrangement of veins on the wings.
|