Butterflies of the World - Lifecycle, Ecology, Taxonomy, Conservation, Photography, Butterfly Holidays, Photo Galleries, Book Reviews and more.........
Text and photographs protected by Copyright © Adrian Hoskins 2007, and must not be published in part or in whole elsewhere without prior written permission from the author.
 
Butterfly Families and Subfamilies
Hesperiidae | Papilionidae | Pieridae | Lycaenidae | Riodinidae | Nymphalidae
Click on thumbnails to see more photos, and detailed descriptions of the distribution,  habitats, lifecycle and behaviour of each illustrated species......
 
Hesperiidae
 

The classification proposed by Evans has been shown by later revisionists to be unreliable. Consequently in this treatment I follow the arrangements of Mielke, Austin, Lamas and Warren.
 
Pyrrhopyginae - neotropical Swifts
 
Jemadia gnetus ( Venezuela )
 
An entirely neotropical subfamily, confined to South America and the part of Central America south of the Rio Grande, Mexico. There are 168 known species. Genera include Myscelus, Passova, Zonia, Jemadia, Mysarbia and Pyrrhopyge. Most species are stout-bodied, and between 40 - 60mm in wingspan. They fly rapidly high in the forest canopy, but descend to feed at mud or bird-droppings.

Pyrginae - Flats, Spreadwings
 
Pyrgus malvae ( England )
 
The Pyrginae are represented in all temperate and tropical areas of the world. They commonly bask on the ground or on foliage with their wings held flat. Many tropical species habitually rest beneath leaves with their wings spread. Species from temperate regions often roost overnight on dead flower-heads. Males of many genera have a small fold on the leading edge of the forewings.
Heteropterinae - Chequered Skippers, Goldspot Skippers
 
Dalla cypselus ( Peru )
 
The Heteropterinae are a fairly small sub-family comprised of about 140 neotropical species, and another 30 or so in other regions of the world. They are all small butterflies, averaging between 30 - 40mm in wingspan. They generally have dark brown uppersides, dappled with cream or orange spots. The undersides usually mirror the pattern on the upperside, with cream or white spots or patches.
Hesperiinae - Grass Skippers, Darters, Swifts
 
Ochlodes venata ( England )
 
The caterpillars of all Hesperiine skippers feed as larvae on palms, grasses or bamboos. Most species have fuscous or chocolate wings, marked with pale spots or hyaline windows. When basking, most species adopt the posture illustrated here by the Large Skipper. The feeding habits of the adult butterflies varies considerably - species from temperate zones commonly nectar at flowers, but those from tropical areas feed at mud, rotting vegetation or bird droppings.
Megathyminae - Giant Skippers, Trapdoor Skippers
 
Stallingsia maculosus ( USA - Texas )
 
32 large powerful skippers found in the deserts, woodlands and grasslands of Mexico and the southern USA. The larvae feed on Yucca, Aloe or Agave. When older, some species bore into roots. Others feed and pupate within the fleshy leaves, and construct trap doors from which the adult butterflies can later emerge.
Coeliadinae - Policemen, Awls
 
Genus species
 
The Policemen and Awls are a group of largish robust skippers with a fast whirring flight similar to that of hawkmoths. They are active from dawn to early evening, and frequently visit flowers for nectar. There about 75 species worldwide - 18 in Africa, 12 in Australasia, and about 45 in the Oriental region. The larvae, which feed on dicotyledons are brightly coloured, with rings of contrasting colours and spots, and live within tents of leaves spun together with silk.
   
Papilionidae
 

In this treatment I follow the classification adopted by Tyler, Doubleday and Lamas.
 
Papilioninae - Swallowtails, Birdwings, Dragontails, Jays
 
Papilio machaon gorganus ( France )
 
About 540 medium or large species, found throughout the tropical, temperate and sub-arctic regions of the world. The smallest species are the Dragontails, which resemble dragonflies in flight. Most other species, including the Swallowtails, and the giant Birdwings of New Guinea, have a fast fluttering flight, and keep their wings fluttering when feeding at flowers.
Parnassiinae - Apollos
 
Parnassius apollo ( France )
 
About 50 species found in alpine and sub-arctic regions of the northern hemisphere - 3 in North America, 3 in Europe, and the remainder in mountainous regions of temperate Asia. All species are poisonous to vertebrates. Most are marked with conspicuous red or orange ocelli. During copulation males glue a structure called a sphragis to females to prevent them mating again.
Baroniinae
 
Baronia brevicornis ( Mexico )
 
A sub-family erected to accommodate a single species, Baronia brevicornis, a locally common endemic of the mountains of western Mexico. It is a smallish species, marked with pale yellow patches on a brown ground colour, and is characterised by having extremely short antennae.
   
Pieridae
 

This treatment retains the original classification proposed by Klots, and recognised by Lamas.
 
Coliadinae - Sulphurs, Yellows, Brimstones
 
Gonepteryx rhamni ( England )
 
The Coliadinae are found on all continents. Most species are strongly migratory, including the Grass Yellows and Sulphurs, which migrate seasonally along the routes of rivers, and settle in vast numbers on the sandbanks of Amazonian tributaries. Other species such as the Brimstones, are nomadic by nature, and very adaptable to different environments.
Pierinae - Whites, Orange-tips, Jezebels, Pereutes
 
Anthocharis cardamines ( England )
 
The Pierinae are amongst the most cosmopolitan of all butterflies, with representatives occurring on all continents and in all habitats including tropical rainforests, temperate woodlands, alpine pastures, deserts, moorland and tundra. Most are predominantly white, often marked with black, yellow or orange. They include the Orange tips, Whites, Arabs, Vagrants, Dotted Borders, Flip-Flops and Jezebels. All nectar avidly at flowers.
Dismorphiinae - Wood Whites, Mimics
 
Leptidea sinapis ( England )
 
The name Dismorphiinae refers to the fact that many members of this predominantly tropical group are sexually dimorphic - having males and females that are vastly different in appearance. Many are also mimetic, e.g. Patia orise from Brazil is an almost perfect mimic of the Ithomiine Glasswing Methona confusa. With the exception of the dainty Wood Whites of temperate Eurasia, the sub-family is entirely confined to South and Central America.
 
  
Lycaenidae
 

The Theclinae have for many years been in need of revision, with many distantly related genera being lumped together for convenience in the genus "Thecla". Robbins recently revised this subfamily, and this treatment follows his proposals. The remaining sub-families follow the classification used by Lamas et al.
 
Theclinae - Hairstreaks, Sunstreaks, Oakblues etc.
 
Thecla betulae ( England )
 
The Theclinae comprises about 2000 species worldwide, over 1060 of which occur in the neotropics. They are commonly known as hairstreaks, a name derived from the white hair-line streaks found on the undersides of most species. Another common characteristic is the presence on most species of tails on each hindwing. They are noted for their fast and very erratic flight around bushes and trees.
Polyommatinae - Blues, Arguses, Caeruleans
 
Polyommatus icarus ( England )
 
Polyommatinae means "many-spotted", and refers to the pattern of small dark spots or blotches on the undersides of most species. Males generally have blue uppersides, while females tend to be brownish, often with orange or red sub-marginal lunules. The butterflies primarily breed in grassland or sub-alpine habitats, and visit flowers for nectar.
Lycaeninae - Coppers, Sapphires, Silverlines, Silverspots
 
Lycaena phlaeas ( England )
 
The Lycaeninae are found mainly in grassland, moorland and marshland areas of the Holarctic region, although a few species occur in the tropics and in New Zealand. Most species have fiery copper uppersides, often with dark spots and borders. Males typically set up territories, voraciously defending them against any intruding insect. Like the Polyommatinae, the coppers are small butterflies of between 25 - 45mm wingspan.
Poritiinae - Gems
 
Poritia phormedon ( Borneo )
 
The Poritiinae are exclusively Asian, with about 30 species found from Assam to Malaysia, the Philippines and Sulawesi. All are very rare, and found in rainforests and cloud-forests up to an elevation of about 2000 metres. All species are sexually dimorphic, males marked with iridescent blue or green, while females are marked with small patches of white, orange or red, depending on species.
Miletinae - Brownies, Darkies
 
Allotinus horsfieldi ( West Malaysia )
 
A fascinating group of small delicate butterflies, mottled or stippled with brown on a whitish ground colour. There are about 80 species in south-east Asia, 45 in Africa, and one in North America. The larvae of all species are carnivorous, feeding on aphids and other Homoptera, although one Sumatran species lives in ant nests and feeds on the grubs. The adults of all species feed in association with ants, which stimulate aphids into producing sugary secretions.
Curetinae - Sunbeams
 
Curetis santana ( Singapore )
 
This sub-family comprises of a single genus, Curetis, with 15 known species, found in rainforest, tropical dry forest and coastal habitats in Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Males have fiery iridescent copper uppersides, but the females are brown, with large yellowish or white patches, and can be mistaken for small Pierids when in flight.
Lipteninae - African Liptenids
 
Epitola posthumus ( Ghana )
 
An exclusively African subfamily of 522 species, found mainly in the rainforests of Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon and the Congo. The larvae feed on lichens. The butterflies are mostly small and often brilliantly coloured. They are sometimes seen flying around the trunks of fig trees, or settled on dry twigs. If disturbed by ants, they remain on the twigs, slowly fanning their wings.
Liphyrinae - Moth butterflies
 
Liphyra brassolis ( Sumatra )
 
A small sub-family of 18 small but stout-bodied African butterflies, and a single large Indo-Australian species Liphyra brassolis - the "Moth butterfly". Its larvae live during the latter part of their lives in nests of the tailor ant Oecophylla smaragdina. They are smooth, elliptical and flattened, with a hard shell which protects them from being attacked by the ants. The adult butterflies lack a proboscis and cannot feed. They fly in the late evening in forest habitats.
   
Riodinidae
 

This family has in the past been known as the Eryciinidae or Nemeobiidae, and is regarded by some as being a sub-family of the Lycaenidae. In this treatment I follow Stichel, Harvey, Hall, d'Abrera, Lamas, Willmott and Callaghan, who regard it as a family within it's own right.
 
Riodininae - Metalmarks, Underleafs, Doctors
 
Hamearis lucina ( England )
 
The Duke of Burgundy illustrated here is the only European member of the Riodinidae. In South and Central America there are 1150 known species in the sub-family Riodininae. Most are roughly similar in size to the Duke of Burgundy, but many are marked with metallic green, blue, purple, copper and red scales, and are commonly known as metalmarks.
Euselasiinae - Euselasias
 
Euselasia gelanor ( Peru )
 
This sub-family is confined entirely to the neotropical region. There are 172 known species. The butterflies range between about 25 - 40mm in wingspan. They habitually hide under leaves, with wings erect, occasionally darting out to investigate other butterflies. The undersides are generally marked with vertical bands in shades of brown, white and orange, but the uppersides are typically black or chocolate, with large patches of bright red or iridescent blue.
 
 
 
Nymphalidae
 
There is much contention regarding the classification of the Nymphalidae. Many of the sub-families described here were previously considered to be families in their own right.
 
Some authorities still adhere to the earlier system of classification as handed down by the fathers of entomology. Most however agree that the former Libytheidae, Heliconiidae, Morphidae and Satyridae should be relegated and placed alongside the Nymphalinae, Charaxinae, Apaturinae, Limenitidinae, Biblidinae and Danainae as subfamilies of the Nymphalidae.
 
Most also agree that the Brassolidae and Amathusiidae should be reduced in rank to become tribes of the Morphinae. The Morphinae and Satyrinae share many characteristics ( e.g. their larvae feed on monocotyledons ) and should probably be placed in a separate group to the other subfamilies.
 
The Acraeidae is now relegated, becoming the tribe Acraeini, within the Heliconiinae. Tellervinae, Danainae and Ithomiinae are also relegated, becoming tribes ( Tellervini, Danaini and Ithomiini ) within the subfamily Danainae.
 
Libytheinae - Beaks
 
Libythea myrrha ( West Malaysia )
 
A very small sub-family with only 19 species, but which is represented on all continents and on many islands. One species, Libythea celtis, is found in southern Europe ( and much of Asia ), but the remainder are sub-tropical or tropical species. They are characterised by having very long beak-like labial palpi. When at rest the jagged brown wings take on the appearance of dead leaves, with the "beak" resembling a leaf stalk.
Nymphalinae - Aristocrats, Checkerspots, small Fritillaries
 
Inachis io ( England )
 
The Nymphalinae includes many of the world's most familiar species, including the Peacock, Red Admiral and Painted Lady. Other well known representatives include the genera Junonia, Siproeta, Anartia, Kallima, Hypolimnas, and the smaller Fritillary genera of Euphydryas, Chlosyne, Melitaea and Mellicta, all of which were formerly included in the defunct sub-family Melitaeinae, which has now been relegated to become a tribe, Melitaeini.
Heliconiinae - Longwings, Acraeas, Argynnine Fritillaries
 
Argynnis paphia ( England )
 
A contentious combination of taxa including about 70 species of Heliconiini - neotropical rainforest species marked with patches of cream, red and blue; about 200 semi-transparent African Acraea, 60 weak-flying neotropical cloudforest Actinote and Altinote species and the Argynnini, a group of 70 black-spotted temperate woodland butterflies, typified by the Silver-washed Fritillary illustrated here.
Limenitidinae - Gliders, Sailors, Adelphas, Euphaedras
 
Limenitis camilla ( England )
 
In 2003 Wahlberg reclassified the Limenitidinae, and excluded many genera which have now been reassigned to the Biblidinae. The revised arrangement is far more rational, including only a few very obviously related genera e.g. Adelpha, Limenitis, Neptis, Pantoporia, Athyma and Moduza. All are forest dwelling species noted for their graceful flight, and distinctive uppersides - black, banded with white and / or orange; and with undersides banded in orange and white.
Biblidinae - Crackers, Mapwings, Numberwings
 
Diaethria clymena ( Peru )
 
The Biblidinae are a large group of very colourful forest butterflies which to the layman have few obvious features in common. They vary greatly in size and wing shape - some genera such as Diaethria and Nessaea having rounded wings, while others such as Marpesia and Cyrestis have very angular forewings, and long tails on the hindwings.
Apaturinae - Emperors, Princes, Doxocopas
 
Apatura iris ( England )
 
There are about 50 species of Apaturinae worldwide, all forest dwelling butterflies noted for their with powerful flight. None feed at nectar, all preferring to imbibe dissolved minerals from mud, sap, rotting fruit, carrion or dung. The males of Apatura and Doxocopa display a brilliant purple, blue or green sheen when viewed at certain angles. They commonly perch in tree tops to await females.
Charaxinae - Leafwings, Pashas, Preponas, Agrias
 
Hypna clytemnestra ( Venezuela )
 
Only one member of the Charaxinae is found in Europe, Charaxes jasius. The majority of species are restricted to tropical or sub-tropical areas, with the greatest concentrations in Africa and South America. They are powerful flyers, found primarily in rainforest and tropical dry forest habitats. Many have very convincing "dead-leaf" undersides, but some have intricate patterns in red, cream, blue and orange. The uppersides tend to be quite plain.
Satyrinae - Browns, Graylings, Ringlets, Palmflies
 
Melanargia galathea ( England )
 
Satyrine larvae feed on the leaves of grasses, palms, bamboos etc. In the Holarctic they are represented by the Heaths, Mountain Ringlets, Graylings and Marbled Whites. Their African and tropical Asian counterparts include ringlet-like genera such as Ypthima and Mycalesis. South America, as might be expected, has the greatest diversity, with transparent Cithaerias, skulking Pierella, and ringlet-like Euptychia being the most well known genera.
Morphinae ( Morphini ) - Morphos, Jungle Glories
 
Morpho helenor ( Peru )
 
The genus Morpho includes some of the largest and most dazzling butterflies in the world - enormous iridescent blue creatures that flap slowly along river courses in neotropical rainforests. The Morphinae also includes the huge South American Owl butterflies of the tribe Brassolini; and the Jungle Glories of Asia - members of the Amathusiini. All species feed as larvae on the leaves of monocotyledons - bananas, plantains, bamboos and palms.
Morphinae - ( Brassolini ) Owls, Barks
 
Caligo idomeneus ( Venezuela )

The tribe Brassolini comprises 93 species of crepuscular or nocturnal butterflies, distributed throughout the neotropical region. Various theories have been proposed to explain the presence of the huge "owl" eyespots that adorn the underside hindwings of many species. They probably serve a dual role - acting as a threat when intimidated, and as decoys in the event of attack.
Danainae ( Danaini ) - Monarchs, Tigers, Crows
 
Danaus genutia ( West Malaysia )
 
There are about 200 species of Danaini. Only 2 species have been recorded in Europe - Danaus plexippus and D. chrysippus. The larvae of all species assimilate toxins from their foodplants, and pass them on to the adult butterflies, rendering them unpalatable to birds. This unpalatability is advertised by the bright orange and black patterning on the wings, which in turn is mimicked by various other toxic and non-toxic species from other sub-families.
Danainae ( Ithomiini ) - Glasswings, Tiger-mimics
 
Pteronymia veia ( Venezuela )
 
Ithomiines fall ( unscientifically ) into 2 groups - the orange and black banded Tiger-mimics, and the transparent Glasswings. They occur exclusively in neotropical rainforests and cloudforests. The adult males feed at Heliotropium and Eupatorium to obtain pyrrolozidine alkaloids, which they chemically convert into pheromones. They gather at "leks" to release their pheromones to attract mates.
Danainae ( Tellervini ) - Hamadryads
 
Tellervo zoilus ( Australia )
 
This tribe exists to accommodate what was originally considered to be a single Australasian species Tellervo zoilus, but recent research has led to some authorities elevating it's various subspecies to full species status. The Tellervini are allied to the Danaini and Ithomiini, but differ morphologically from both in several respects. There are 9 species, found in Queensland, Papua and the Solomon Islands.
 
 
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Text and butterfly photographs protected by Copyright © Adrian Hoskins 2007-2008 unless otherwise stated, and must not be reproduced or published in part or in whole elsewhere in any form without prior written permission from Adrian Hoskins. Breach of copyright will be pursued by litigation.
 
Photographs of Tellervo zoilus, Curetis santana, Epitola posthumus, Poritia phormedon, Stallingsia maculosus and Liphyra brassolis appearing on this page are supplied and copyright-free.
 
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