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Butterfly Families and
Subfamilies
Hesperiidae |
Papilionidae |
Pieridae
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Lycaenidae
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Riodinidae
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Nymphalidae
Click on
thumbnails to see more photos, and detailed descriptions of the
distribution, habitats, lifecycle and behaviour of each
illustrated species......
Hesperiidae
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The classification proposed by
Evans has been shown by later revisionists to be unreliable.
Consequently in this treatment I follow the arrangements of Mielke, Austin, Lamas and Warren. |
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Pyrrhopyginae -
neotropical
Swifts
Jemadia gnetus
( Venezuela )
An
entirely neotropical subfamily, confined to South America and the part of
Central America south of the Rio Grande, Mexico. There are 168
known species. Genera include
Myscelus,
Passova,
Zonia,
Jemadia,
Mysarbia
and
Pyrrhopyge.
Most species are stout-bodied, and between 40 - 60mm in wingspan.
They fly rapidly high in the forest canopy, but descend to feed at
mud or bird-droppings.
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Pyrginae - Flats,
Spreadwings
Pyrgus malvae
( England )
The
Pyrginae are represented in all temperate and tropical areas of
the world. They commonly bask on the ground or on foliage with
their wings held flat. Many tropical species habitually rest
beneath leaves with their wings spread. Species from temperate
regions often roost overnight on dead flower-heads. Males of many
genera have a small fold on the leading edge of the forewings.
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Heteropterinae -
Chequered Skippers, Goldspot Skippers
Dalla cypselus
( Peru )
The Heteropterinae
are a fairly small sub-family comprised of about 140 neotropical
species, and another 30 or so in other regions of the world. They
are all small butterflies, averaging between 30 - 40mm in
wingspan. They generally have dark brown uppersides, dappled with
cream or orange spots. The undersides usually mirror the pattern
on the upperside, with cream or white spots or patches.
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Hesperiinae -
Grass Skippers,
Darters, Swifts
Ochlodes venata
( England )
The
caterpillars of all Hesperiine
skippers feed as larvae on palms, grasses or bamboos. Most species have fuscous or chocolate wings, marked
with pale spots or hyaline windows. When basking, most species
adopt the posture illustrated here by the Large Skipper. The
feeding habits of the adult butterflies varies considerably - species
from temperate zones commonly nectar at flowers, but those from
tropical areas feed at mud, rotting vegetation or bird droppings.
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Megathyminae -
Giant Skippers, Trapdoor Skippers
Stallingsia maculosus
( USA - Texas )
32 large powerful
skippers found in the
deserts, woodlands and grasslands of Mexico and the southern USA. The larvae feed on Yucca, Aloe or
Agave. When older, some species bore into roots. Others feed and pupate within the fleshy leaves,
and construct trap doors from which the adult butterflies can later
emerge.
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Coeliadinae -
Policemen, Awls
Genus species
The Policemen and
Awls are a group of largish robust skippers with a fast whirring
flight similar to that of hawkmoths. They are active from dawn to
early evening, and frequently visit flowers for nectar. There
about 75 species worldwide - 18 in Africa, 12 in Australasia, and
about 45 in the Oriental region. The larvae, which feed on
dicotyledons are brightly coloured, with rings of contrasting
colours and spots, and live within tents of leaves spun together
with silk.
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Papilionidae
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In this treatment I
follow the
classification adopted by Tyler, Doubleday and Lamas. |
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Papilioninae -
Swallowtails,
Birdwings, Dragontails, Jays
Papilio machaon gorganus (
France )
About 540 medium or
large species, found throughout the tropical, temperate and
sub-arctic regions of the world. The smallest species are the
Dragontails, which resemble dragonflies in flight. Most other
species, including the Swallowtails, and the giant Birdwings of
New Guinea, have a fast fluttering flight, and keep their wings
fluttering when feeding at flowers.
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Parnassiinae -
Apollos
Parnassius apollo
( France )
About 50
species found in alpine and sub-arctic regions of the northern
hemisphere - 3 in North America, 3 in Europe, and the remainder in mountainous regions of temperate
Asia. All species are poisonous to vertebrates. Most are marked with conspicuous red or orange ocelli.
During copulation males glue a structure
called a sphragis to females to prevent them mating again.
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Baroniinae
Baronia brevicornis
( Mexico )
A
sub-family erected to accommodate a single species,
Baronia brevicornis,
a locally common endemic of the mountains of western Mexico. It is
a smallish species, marked with pale yellow patches on a brown
ground colour, and is characterised by having extremely short
antennae.
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Pieridae
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This treatment retains the original
classification proposed by Klots, and recognised by Lamas. |
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Coliadinae -
Sulphurs, Yellows, Brimstones
Gonepteryx rhamni
( England )
The
Coliadinae are found on all continents. Most species are
strongly migratory, including the Grass Yellows and Sulphurs,
which migrate seasonally along the routes of rivers, and settle in
vast numbers on the sandbanks of Amazonian tributaries. Other
species such as the Brimstones, are nomadic by nature, and very
adaptable to different environments.
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Pierinae -
Whites, Orange-tips,
Jezebels, Pereutes
Anthocharis
cardamines
( England )
The Pierinae are
amongst the most cosmopolitan of all butterflies, with
representatives occurring on all continents and in all habitats
including tropical rainforests, temperate woodlands, alpine
pastures, deserts, moorland and tundra. Most are predominantly
white, often marked with black, yellow or orange. They include the
Orange tips, Whites, Arabs, Vagrants, Dotted Borders, Flip-Flops
and Jezebels. All nectar avidly at flowers.
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Dismorphiinae -
Wood
Whites, Mimics
Leptidea sinapis
( England )
The
name Dismorphiinae refers to the fact that many members of this
predominantly tropical group are sexually dimorphic - having
males and females that are vastly different in appearance. Many
are also mimetic, e.g.
Patia
orise
from Brazil is an almost perfect mimic of the Ithomiine Glasswing
Methona confusa.
With the exception of the dainty Wood Whites of temperate Eurasia, the sub-family is entirely confined to South and
Central America.
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Lycaenidae
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The Theclinae have for many years
been in need of revision, with many distantly related genera being
lumped together for convenience in the genus "Thecla". Robbins recently
revised this subfamily, and this treatment follows his proposals.
The remaining sub-families follow the classification used by Lamas
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Theclinae -
Hairstreaks, Sunstreaks, Oakblues etc.
Thecla betulae
( England )
The Theclinae
comprises about 2000 species worldwide, over 1060 of which occur
in the neotropics. They are commonly known as
hairstreaks, a name derived from the white hair-line streaks found
on the undersides of most species. Another common characteristic
is the presence on most species of tails on each hindwing. They
are noted for their fast and very erratic flight around bushes and
trees.
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Polyommatinae -
Blues, Arguses, Caeruleans
Polyommatus icarus
( England )
Polyommatinae means "many-spotted", and refers to the pattern of
small dark spots or blotches on the undersides of most species.
Males generally have blue uppersides, while females tend to be
brownish, often with orange or red sub-marginal lunules. The
butterflies primarily breed in grassland or sub-alpine habitats,
and visit flowers for nectar.
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Lycaeninae -
Coppers, Sapphires, Silverlines, Silverspots
Lycaena phlaeas
( England )
The Lycaeninae
are found
mainly in grassland, moorland and marshland areas of the Holarctic
region, although a few species occur in the
tropics and in New Zealand. Most species have fiery copper
uppersides, often with dark spots and borders. Males typically set
up territories, voraciously defending them against any intruding
insect. Like the Polyommatinae, the coppers are small butterflies
of between 25 - 45mm wingspan.
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Poritiinae -
Gems
Poritia phormedon
( Borneo )
The Poritiinae are
exclusively Asian, with about 30 species found from Assam to Malaysia, the
Philippines and Sulawesi. All are very rare, and
found in rainforests and cloud-forests up to an elevation
of about 2000 metres. All species are sexually dimorphic, males
marked with iridescent blue or green, while females are marked with small patches of white, orange or red,
depending on species.
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Miletinae -
Brownies, Darkies
Allotinus horsfieldi
( West Malaysia )
A fascinating group
of small delicate butterflies, mottled or stippled with brown on a
whitish ground colour. There are about 80 species in south-east
Asia, 45 in Africa, and one in North America. The larvae of all
species are carnivorous, feeding on aphids and other Homoptera,
although one Sumatran species lives in ant nests and feeds on the
grubs. The adults of all species feed in association with ants,
which stimulate aphids into producing sugary secretions.
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Curetinae -
Sunbeams
Curetis santana
( Singapore )
This
sub-family comprises of a single genus,
Curetis,
with 15 known species, found in rainforest, tropical dry forest
and coastal habitats in Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
Males have fiery iridescent copper uppersides, but the females are
brown, with large yellowish or white patches, and can be mistaken
for small Pierids when in flight.
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Lipteninae -
African Liptenids
Epitola posthumus
( Ghana )
An exclusively
African subfamily of 522 species, found mainly in
the rainforests of Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon and the Congo. The
larvae feed on lichens.
The butterflies are mostly small and often brilliantly coloured.
They are sometimes seen flying around the trunks of fig trees, or
settled on dry twigs. If disturbed by
ants, they remain on the twigs, slowly fanning their wings.
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Liphyrinae -
Moth butterflies
Liphyra brassolis
( Sumatra )
A
small sub-family of 18 small but stout-bodied African butterflies, and
a single large Indo-Australian species
Liphyra brassolis
- the "Moth butterfly". Its larvae live during the latter part of
their lives in nests of the tailor ant
Oecophylla smaragdina.
They are smooth, elliptical and flattened, with a hard shell which
protects them from being attacked by the ants. The adult
butterflies lack a proboscis and cannot feed. They fly in the
late evening in forest habitats.
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Riodinidae
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This family has in the past been
known as the Eryciinidae or Nemeobiidae, and is regarded by some
as being a sub-family of the Lycaenidae. In
this treatment I follow Stichel,
Harvey, Hall, d'Abrera, Lamas, Willmott and Callaghan, who regard
it as a family within it's own right. |
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Riodininae -
Metalmarks, Underleafs, Doctors
Hamearis lucina
( England )
The Duke of Burgundy
illustrated here is the only European member of the Riodinidae. In
South and Central America there are 1150 known species in the
sub-family Riodininae. Most are roughly similar in size to the
Duke of Burgundy, but many are marked with metallic green, blue,
purple, copper and red scales, and are commonly known as
metalmarks.
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Euselasiinae -
Euselasias
Euselasia gelanor
( Peru )
This sub-family is
confined entirely to the neotropical region. There are 172 known
species. The butterflies range between
about 25 - 40mm in wingspan. They habitually hide under leaves,
with wings erect, occasionally darting out to investigate other
butterflies. The undersides are generally marked with vertical
bands in shades of brown, white and orange, but the uppersides are
typically black or chocolate, with large patches of bright red or
iridescent blue.
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Nymphalidae
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There is
much
contention regarding the classification of the Nymphalidae. Many
of the sub-families described here were previously considered to
be families in their own right.
Some authorities
still adhere to the earlier system of classification as handed
down by the fathers of entomology. Most however agree that the
former Libytheidae, Heliconiidae,
Morphidae and
Satyridae should be relegated and placed alongside the
Nymphalinae, Charaxinae, Apaturinae,
Limenitidinae,
Biblidinae and
Danainae as subfamilies
of the Nymphalidae.
Most also agree that
the
Brassolidae and
Amathusiidae should be reduced in
rank to become tribes of the Morphinae. The Morphinae and
Satyrinae share many characteristics ( e.g. their larvae feed on
monocotyledons ) and should probably be placed in a separate group
to the other subfamilies.
The Acraeidae
is now
relegated, becoming the tribe Acraeini, within the Heliconiinae. Tellervinae,
Danainae and
Ithomiinae are also relegated, becoming tribes ( Tellervini, Danaini and Ithomiini
) within the subfamily Danainae.
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Libytheinae -
Beaks
Libythea myrrha
( West Malaysia )
A very
small sub-family with only 19 species, but which is represented on
all continents and on many islands. One species,
Libythea celtis,
is found in southern Europe ( and much of Asia ), but the
remainder are sub-tropical or tropical species. They are
characterised by having very long beak-like labial palpi. When at
rest the jagged brown wings take on the appearance of dead leaves,
with the "beak" resembling a leaf stalk.
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Nymphalinae -
Aristocrats, Checkerspots, small Fritillaries
Inachis io
( England )
The
Nymphalinae includes many of the world's most familiar species,
including the Peacock, Red Admiral and Painted Lady. Other well
known representatives include the genera
Junonia,
Siproeta,
Anartia,
Kallima,
Hypolimnas,
and the smaller Fritillary genera of
Euphydryas,
Chlosyne,
Melitaea
and
Mellicta,
all of which were formerly included in the defunct sub-family
Melitaeinae, which has now been relegated to become a tribe,
Melitaeini.
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Heliconiinae -
Longwings, Acraeas, Argynnine Fritillaries
Argynnis paphia
( England )
A
contentious combination of taxa including about 70 species of
Heliconiini - neotropical rainforest species marked with patches
of cream, red and blue; about 200 semi-transparent African
Acraea,
60 weak-flying neotropical cloudforest
Actinote
and
Altinote
species and the Argynnini, a group of 70 black-spotted temperate
woodland butterflies, typified by the Silver-washed Fritillary
illustrated here.
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Limenitidinae -
Gliders, Sailors, Adelphas, Euphaedras
Limenitis camilla
( England )
In
2003 Wahlberg reclassified the Limenitidinae, and excluded many
genera which have now been reassigned to the Biblidinae. The
revised arrangement is far more rational, including only a few
very obviously related genera e.g.
Adelpha,
Limenitis,
Neptis,
Pantoporia,
Athyma
and
Moduza.
All are forest dwelling species noted for their graceful flight,
and distinctive uppersides - black, banded with white and / or
orange; and with undersides banded in orange and white.
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Biblidinae -
Crackers, Mapwings,
Numberwings
Diaethria clymena
( Peru )
The
Biblidinae are a large group of very colourful forest butterflies
which to the layman have few obvious features in common. They vary
greatly in size and wing shape - some genera such as
Diaethria
and
Nessaea
having rounded wings, while others such as
Marpesia
and
Cyrestis
have very angular forewings, and long tails on the hindwings.
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Apaturinae -
Emperors, Princes, Doxocopas
Apatura iris
( England )
There
are about 50 species of Apaturinae worldwide, all forest dwelling
butterflies noted for their with powerful flight. None feed at
nectar, all preferring to imbibe dissolved minerals from mud, sap,
rotting fruit, carrion or dung. The males of
Apatura
and
Doxocopa
display a brilliant purple, blue or green sheen when viewed at
certain angles. They commonly perch in tree tops to await females.
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Charaxinae -
Leafwings, Pashas, Preponas, Agrias
Hypna clytemnestra
(
Venezuela )
Only
one member of the Charaxinae is found in Europe,
Charaxes jasius.
The majority of species are restricted to tropical or sub-tropical
areas, with the greatest concentrations in Africa and South
America. They are powerful flyers, found primarily in rainforest
and tropical dry forest habitats. Many have very convincing
"dead-leaf" undersides, but some have intricate patterns in red,
cream, blue and orange. The uppersides tend to be quite plain.
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Satyrinae -
Browns, Graylings, Ringlets, Palmflies
Melanargia galathea
( England )
Satyrine larvae feed on the leaves of grasses, palms, bamboos etc.
In the Holarctic they are represented by the Heaths, Mountain
Ringlets, Graylings and Marbled Whites. Their African and tropical
Asian counterparts include ringlet-like genera such as
Ypthima
and
Mycalesis.
South America, as might be expected, has the greatest diversity,
with transparent
Cithaerias,
skulking
Pierella,
and ringlet-like
Euptychia
being the most well known genera.
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Morphinae
( Morphini ) -
Morphos, Jungle Glories
Morpho helenor
(
Peru )
The
genus
Morpho
includes some of the largest and most dazzling butterflies in the
world - enormous iridescent blue creatures that flap slowly along
river courses in neotropical rainforests. The Morphinae also includes the
huge South American Owl butterflies of the tribe Brassolini; and the
Jungle Glories of Asia - members of the Amathusiini. All species
feed as larvae on the leaves of monocotyledons - bananas,
plantains, bamboos and palms.
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Morphinae -
( Brassolini )
Owls, Barks
Caligo idomeneus
(
Venezuela )
The tribe Brassolini comprises 93 species of crepuscular or nocturnal
butterflies, distributed throughout the neotropical region.
Various theories have been proposed to explain the presence of the
huge "owl" eyespots that adorn the underside hindwings of many
species.
They probably serve a dual role - acting as a threat when
intimidated, and as decoys in the event of attack. |
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Danainae
( Danaini ) -
Monarchs, Tigers, Crows
Danaus genutia
(
West Malaysia )
There
are about 200 species of Danaini. Only 2 species have been
recorded in Europe -
Danaus
plexippus
and
D.
chrysippus.
The larvae of all species assimilate toxins from their foodplants,
and pass them on to the adult butterflies, rendering them
unpalatable to birds. This unpalatability is advertised by the
bright orange and black patterning on the wings, which in turn is
mimicked by various other toxic and non-toxic species from other
sub-families.
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Danainae
( Ithomiini ) -
Glasswings, Tiger-mimics
Pteronymia veia
( Venezuela )
Ithomiines fall ( unscientifically ) into 2 groups - the orange
and black banded Tiger-mimics, and the transparent Glasswings.
They occur exclusively in neotropical rainforests and
cloudforests. The adult males feed at
Heliotropium
and
Eupatorium
to obtain pyrrolozidine alkaloids, which they chemically convert
into pheromones. They gather at "leks" to release their pheromones
to attract mates.
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Danainae
( Tellervini )
-
Hamadryads
Tellervo
zoilus
( Australia )
This
tribe exists to accommodate what was originally considered to be a
single Australasian species
Tellervo zoilus,
but recent research has led to some authorities elevating it's
various subspecies to full species status. The Tellervini are
allied to the Danaini and Ithomiini, but differ morphologically
from both in several respects. There are 9 species, found in
Queensland, Papua and the Solomon Islands.
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Text and butterfly photographs protected by Copyright © Adrian
Hoskins 2007-2008 unless otherwise stated, and must not be reproduced or published in part
or in whole elsewhere in any form without prior written permission from
Adrian Hoskins. Breach of copyright will be pursued by litigation.
Photographs of Tellervo
zoilus, Curetis santana, Epitola posthumus, Poritia phormedon,
Stallingsia maculosus and Liphyra brassolis appearing on this page
are supplied and copyright-free.
Website designed, produced and owned by
Adrian Hoskins
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